Omnivores Dilemma - A Natural History of Four Meals is a Nonfiction Essay

Omnivores Dilemma - A Natural History of Four Meals is a Nonfiction Book by Michael Pollan - Essay Example The book illustrates the American way of living from the source to the final meal that is eaten. From an economic viewpoint, there are many shortcomings of the book worth noting, such as in the Pollan’s self financed meals; he only focuses on what is before his eyes and ignores the macroeconomic factors that influence the transparency of the cost of foods, which is not attainable within the interconnectedness of the markets. Essentially, Omnivore’s Dilemma is a book about the state of America’s food production, consumption, regulation and distribution (Tyler, 2006). Food Chain Food chains are usually applied in ecological modelling, which provides a continuous variable for measuring passage of energy through various linear linkages from the lowest to the highest trophic feeding levels. Long food chain lengths are unstable with increasing length increases with the ecosystem size and reduction of energy at every successive level. Food chain lengths vary from three to six or even more levels. For example, a four-level food chain will consist of a flower, a frog, a snake and an owl. A five-level food chain may consist of the grass, a grasshopper, a rat, a snake and an owl. The organisms that use solar energy or heat energy to synthesize starch are the producers, such as plants. Consumers are those organisms that feed on other organisms, whereas, all food chains begin with the producer then progresses to the consumer. Therefore, all organisms within a food chain except the first one are all consumers. This fascinating journey through the food chain does not make Pollan a preacher, but he is engrossed in his thoughtfulness and so much dogged a researcher to let ideology take over him. He is surely not a writer who is afraid of soiling his hands in the quest for a better understanding on the manner in which modern food is produced. For example, he does everything from buying his cow to the slaughterhouse, then ultimately to the dinner table. Polla n really capture how Americans eat today from the fast food to the big organic to the locally sourced, ultimately to foraging for dinner armed with a rifle. This idea examines the human diet from capitalism to consumption (Pollan, 2006). National Eating Disorder Americans have changed the way they eat and the usual question that arises daily is based on what will be taken for dinner. This is a simple question that can evolve to be very complex as one tries to figure it out. The evolution of human culture has a great influence on how peoples’ native wisdom about eating, such that the way people eat is riddled with confusion and anxiety. Most ancient and venerable staple foods have abruptly disappeared from the American dinner tables and have made Americans to change the way they eat. This condition can be described as carbophobia. This was supplanted by lipophobia around 1977 when Americans were warned against loving the red meat during the Carter reign, which forced the Senat e committee to issue a set of dietary goals.  

2.Does motivation to work vary from culture to culture Discuss the Essay

2.Does motivation to work vary from culture to culture Discuss the applicability of one content theory of motivation and of one process theory of motivation to your national culture - Essay Example behavior, the more able the manager will be in influencing subordinates’ behavior to make it more consistent with the organization goals and objectives. Human beings are driven by one thing or another, in order to do something. This driving force is the reason why they would do something. This driving force is basically what we term as ‘motivation’. Motivation is the desire to do anything. It is one of the most important of the factors that lead us to perform a task. It is the inner state that causes an individual to behave in a way that ensures the accomplishment of some goal (Certo and Certo, 2013). Motivation is also seen as a set of processes that stimulate, direct and maintain human behavior towards achieving a particular goal (Di Cesare and Sadri, 2003) Persuaded individuals are the individuals who have settled on a conscious choice to dedicate significant exertion to attaining something that they esteem. What they esteem will vary enormously starting with one singular then onto the next. Some individuals might be motivated by monetary factors involved in accomplishing a task while others might be driven by non-monetary factors (Erez et al, 2012). Monetary factors are those elements in a job that result in the individual getting rewarded in form of money such as salary, bonuses, fringe benefits etc. Non monetary factors are also called intrinsic factors and are those that are closely linked to a person’s satisfaction and hence these include appreciation, recognition, delegation and relationship with colleagues (Lehto and Landry, 2012). Both of these factors play an important role in motivating a person to perform a job. If the right motivators are used to stimulate individuals to work, there is a high probability that the wo rk performed will be effective and efficient. This is because the individual is happy and wants to show the same love and affection towards the job and the organization. The token of appreciation from the individual’s side is

Bigamy & Alimony Essay Example for Free

Bigamy Alimony Essay If fact of first marriage was concealed from the spouse – term of imprisonment may extend to 10 years In Sarla Mudgal v UOI AIR 1995 SC 1531, the SC criticized the practice of conversion to Islam for the sake of contracting II bigamous marriage ‘coz that enables them to marry again without getting their first marriage dissolved. The ruling was reaffirmed in the case of Lily Thomas v UOI AIR 2000 SC 1650. Also held: plurality of marriage is not unconditional right conferred on the Muslim husband. There is a precondition that he should have the capacity to do justice between the co-wives. Under Hanafi Law – 5 marriages are not void but merely irregular and can be regularized by divorcing one wife. Exception – a Sunni taking a 5th wife is not guilty of Bigamy u/s 494, 495 of IPC ( Shahumeedu v Subajda ( 1970) But a Shia Husband who takes 5th marriage (where 5th marriage is void) can be prosecuted for bigamy. So, one who marries during the lifetime of his or her spouse commits an offence of bigamy – provided his first marriage is not null void. In M. M. Malhotra v UOI AIR 2006 SC 80, Husband married a woman whose marriage was in subsistence but was void. Hence, held subsequent marriage would not be bigamous. If former marriage is voidable, then also bigamy is committed. Varadrajan v State of Madras AIR 1965 SC 1964, Bigamy where requisite formalities of marriage have been performed at the time of the solemnization of II marriage. Priya v Suresh AIR 1971 SC 1153, held second marriage cannot be treated to be proved by mere admission of parties. Performance of appropriate ceremonies is to be proved. Dr. D.N. Mukherji v State AIR 1969 All. 486, held: performance of some mock ceremony is not enough and, therefore, prosecution of bigamy will fail. So bigamous marriage is void under H, Christian and Parsi laws. Under SMA – declaration of nullity of marriage can be obtained by either party. The spouse of 1st  marriage has no right to file a petition for nullity. Remedy is to file a declaratory suit to that effect u/s 34 of the Special Relief Act, 1963. Under Matrimonial law the spouse of 1st marriage may sue for dissolution on the ground that other party is living in adultery u/s 13 (1) (i) of HMA. Law Commission of India In 227th report, given on 5th Aug.’2009, recommended in HMA after S. 17 ( punishment) S. 17 – A be inserted that a married person, who is governed by this Act cannot marry again even after changing religion, unless- i. 1st one is dissolved; or ii. Declared null and void In accordance with law. And if such a marriage is contracted it will be null void; and Shall attract application of S. 494,495 of IPC. no defense can be taken in the charge of bigamy that it was a i. in good faith; or ii. mistake of law. Only aggrieved party can complaint But once case is filed State prosecutes the bigamous spouse. Should bigamy be permitted in some limited cases? In Goa, Daman Diu – during Portuguese rule Hindu Husband was permitted to take II wife during the lifetime of 1st one but – i. in specified cases ii. With the consent of wife Kane – (in History of Dharmashstra) suggested – it should be tolerated for some classes on economic grounds. Derrett also supports (Critique of Modern Hindu Law) Some arguments hold good for polyandry also, but present writers do not support this view. iii.

Importance of Communication in Daily Life

Importance of Communication in Daily Life To effectively communicate, we must realize that we are all different in the way we perceive the world and use this understanding as a guide to our communication with others. Anthony Robbins Communication Is Integral To Human Life Communication is deeply intertwined with the human existence. It is an integral part of it. One cannot think of human life without communication. Can you imagine what would happen if you are not allowed to talk for a long time? You would feel suffocated. In personal life, we need to communicate to deal with various concerns and problems of daily life. In professional life also, it is communication that helps us to build healthy relations and credibility with co-workers. Only speaking/talking is not communication. Communication can take place in many forms. Sometimes, we communicate by talking about our ideas, thoughts or emotions; at other times, we may wish to communicate through the written word or even non-verbally. Whatever form we choose, getting the message across is what communication is all about. Communication is a process that is dynamic, continuous, and irreversible but at the same time, it is reciprocal in nature. It is an ongoing process. Roughly, we can define communication as a shared meaning between two or more individuals. The shared meaning arises out of the individuals experiences, background, education and training. Similarity in experiences, background, training, etc. makes communication successful between individuals. Communication helps us to understand others. The inability to communicate can lead to a lot of problems both personally and professionally. Imagine a day without communicating! We can instantly feel the void it would create. Can we ever forget that it is our ability to communicate verbally that distinguishes us from animals? Communication helps form a powerful bond among people and makes us social beings. Besides, knowledge is not the sole requirement for the achievement of success. A person may possess good knowledge, but his/her performance will be evaluated largely on the basis of his/her ability to communicate. Therefore, if you are a good communicator, you have better chances of success in life and in business. 1.2 COMMUNICATION FOR BUSINESS Communication has become indispensable today. Human activity will come to a standstill if there is no communication. All human transactions become possible only through communication. It is the life-blood of every business organization. Especially in todays globalized market economy, effective communication is vital to the success and survival of any organization. Businesses need people with good communication skills because communication is an essential part of the kind of work that is done in business organizations. It extends across all areas of business, including managerial, technical, clerical and social positions. In present times, several factors have contributed to the significance of communication. They are- faster means of communication because of scientific and technological advancements shrinking geographical boundaries because of the availability of faster means of transport growth of the multinational companies that has resulted in the creation of a globalized market economy generation of highly advanced management techniques as a result of the growing importance of professionalism in the management of business the information revolution that has brought with it highly sophisticated networking technologies multiplication of systems of communication at all levels of organization because of specialized knowledge that has lead to departmentalization advancements in the field of social sciences such as in psychology and in sociology that have created an awareness about the human mind and behaviour and how they influence communication Communication undertaken by a business organization with the purpose of achieving certain specific goals is known as business communication. In fact, business communication is a special type of communication undertaken to meet the needs of the organization. Powerful concepts in modern management like participation, motivation, involvement revolve around communication. According to R. Ludlow, Business communication is a process of transfer of information and understanding between different parts and people of a business organization. It consists of various modes and media involved in communication interchanges. Effective communication is needed for growth and development of any organization. H.G. Hicks has rightly pointed out- Communication is basic to an organizations existence from birth of the organization; when communication stops, organized activity ceases to exist. Improving communication skills improves the chances for success of a business. Effective communication brings progress and prosperity to it. Moreover, in this age of specialization, planning, production, sales, advertising, finance, welfare, etc. are handled by different departments. In absence of effective communication, there would be a serious problem of co-ordination among these departments and there would only be chaos and confusion in the organization. Communication is also quite significant keeping in mind the growing importance of human relations and human resource management in todays world. Communication helps a manager in developing meaningful relationships with the subordinates, changing their attitudes, boosting their morale and soliciting their cooperation. Communication links people together to achieve common goals. It is also required to maintain good public relations. Thus, executives are often expected to give speeches and interviews to the media in order to project a favourable image of the organization. Effective communication is required to handle various crises and conflicts of interests in an organization. It is also needed in order to impart adequate training to the employees in handling latest technology. Subordinates often resent the introduction of changes in the methods of working. This poses a challenge to the management to educate the employees so that they can smoothly adapt to the dynamic character of the organization. They also have to work at alleviating the fear that these changes are likely to generate unemployment. Thus, effective communication can help in changing the negative attitude of the employees towards technological advancement. It facilitates meetings which play an important role in the functioning of an organization. Effective business communication depends not only on the skills of the sender of the message but also on the skills of the one who receives that message. Thus, one may say that communication is not an end in itself; rather, it is a means to achieve an end. 1.3 PRE-REQUISITES OF COMMUNICATION Now the question is- What is communication and how it can be accomplished? What do we require to carry out communication? Hence, prior to looking at the meaning of communication, it would be helpful to know how we prepare for it. For instance, you want to write a letter. What all do you need for it? A piece of paper. A pen. A desk for support. Is there anything else that you require besides these things? Certainly you do. You need to dwell on three important things- 1. Purpose 2. Content 3. Skills These three precede all speaking or writing. WHAT TO COMMUNICATE- CONTENT Information Observation/ Receive by Select/Reject Think and Understanding Attention listening or as per your evaluate results into by reading interest, need the information knowledge or expectation This is how information is processed in to being knowledge. Knowledge generates in you the confidence to communicate. If you are well prepared with the content, then half the work is done. It is the urge to express something that begins communication. It can be an idea, an emotion, an opinion or some information. Without this basic idea/need, there can be no communication. However, we do not communicate whatever comes to our mind immediately. There is a need to plan- what to communicate, how to communicate and whom to communicate it to. We do not communicate without a purpose; therefore, it is essential to answer these questions before actually communicating. This helps us to communicate effectively and to get a desirable response from the person with whom we are exchanging our ideas. WHY TO COMMUNICATE- PURPOSE Speakers/ will hear/see Purpose of Writers Listener/ Communication Expectation Reader will listen/read will understand will act/respond THE PURPOSE IS FULFILLED Purpose is the primary pre-requisite of all meaningful communication. The sender initiates communication with some purpose i.e. expectation. S/he expects the receiver to hear/see his message, to listen/read it attentively, to understand it and to act/respond to it. When the receiver gives feedback or performs the expected action, then communication is said to be successful. However, the response would depend on various factors like concentration, physical surroundings and psychological makeup of the receiver. The next question is- how do we communicate? Communication does not just mean speaking or writing. We are communicating even when we smile or shrug our shoulders. However, when we decide to communicate, we need some medium through which to transfer that idea to the other person. HOW TO COMMUNICATE- SKILLS You may possess good knowledge and may be ready to convey it but if you do not know how to do it, it would not be effective. Poor speaking or writing skills is a real hurdle in communication. Speaking Skills Read aloud: Take a small piece of writing from a newspaper, magazine or a book and read it out loud. This will help you to know how you speak- your voice tone, pitch, etc. Observe: Observe how people speak- their pronunciation, accent, intonation, stress, style, rhythm, etc. Try to emulate the speaking style of good speakers. This will help you to improve your own style of speaking. (For a detailed note on speaking skills, writing skills and non-verbal communication, refer Chapter 2 Types of Communication.) Just the idea/information that the communicator has, the media of transmission available and the presence of the receiver are not enough for communication to take place. We need a proper context and an atmosphere where there are no hindrances in the communication process. Does communication end after the idea is communicated? As stated earlier, we communicate with a purpose. Expression of the idea/information is half the work done. But communication is considered complete only when there is some response from the receiver. Only then we can say that the purpose of communication is fulfilled. Communication involves three basic activities on the part of both the participants i.e. the sender and the receiver. On the senders part, they are- Thinking to develop the content to form a message Speaking/Writing to convey the message to the other person Feeling to make the message persuasive On the receivers part, the activities include- Listening/Reading to absorb the idea/information contained in the message Interpreting to understand the meaning of the message Responding to convey the acceptance or the disagreement with the message Communication has always been an important part of human life. Language and the ability to express ourselves using that language come to us spontaneously. And the need to communicate is so inherent in human nature that we hardly realize that effective communication skills can be acquired and honed. There are four basic communication skills- speaking, writing, listening and reading. They always work in the following adjacency pairs- Speaking/writing is handled by the sender of the message and listening/reading by the receiver of the message. Mastering these four skills is very essential if one wants to become an effective communicator. As children, we learn to speak by listening first. Thus, listening is the first skill that we acquire as we develop the language instinct. Then follows the reading skills once we start schooling and lastly we learn the writing skills as a part of our formal education. Thus, learning language/s and the related communication skills follow a systematic process. It does not happen accidentally and instantaneously. Despite of this, people often turn out to be poor communicators as most of us tend to take its importance for granted. Most of the time, we fail to achieve our objective while we communicate. This happens because of our failure to convey our ideas in a precise and clearly understandable manner. There may be a lack either in the content of the message or in the way in which it is conveyed to the intended audience, or both. The point is we do not normally focus much on what to communicate, when to communicate and how to communicate. Also, we need to consider another equally important aspect why to communicate i.e. the purpose. Thus, it is very important for us to recognize and study the essential elements involved in the process of communication in order to become effective communicators. Every aspect of life, whether personal, social or professional, involves communication. The basic meaning of the word communication is- an exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behaviour. The meaning of the word has not undergone much change. However, the ways and means of communication have changed greatly as a result of technological and other socio-cultural developments in recent times. Thus, these advancements have added numerous new dimensions to the communication process, which has become more complex over a period of time. It, thus, calls for a detailed study of the various components that are involved in it in order to be able to communicate effectively. 1.4 DEFINING COMMUNICATION In order to understand the term communication, it would be useful to have a look at some definitions given by the experts. The word communication is derived from the Latin word communis which means to transmit, to impart, to exchange, to share, or to convey. Communication means the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium. (Oxford English Dictionary) Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning. (Business Dictionary) According to Newman and Summer, Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons. Keith Davis states Communication is a process of passing information and understanding from one person to another. F.G. Meyer defines communication as the intercourse by words, letters or messages, the intercourse of thoughts or opinions. It is the act of making ones ideas and opinions known to others. In the words of Theo Haimann, Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to anotherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ it is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others. According to C.G. Brown, Communication has been defined as the transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits confidence or becomes an exchange or interchange. But the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver. William Scott defines communication as a process which involves the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will accomplish organizational goals. Louis A. Allen says, Communication is the sum of all the things which a person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening, and understanding. According to McFarland, Communication may be broadly defined as the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is a process by which meanings are perceived and understanding is reached among human beings. These definitions explain communication as a process of passing information and understanding (Keith Davis) a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding (Business Dictionary) the act of making ones ideas and opinions known to others (F.G. Meyer) the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others (Theo Haimann) the transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions (William Scott) a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening, and understanding (Louis A. Allen) a process by which meanings are perceived and understanding is reached among human beings (McFarland) Thus, these definitions adequately highlight and express in concise form the important features of the process of communication. In short, we can define communication as a process in which two or more elements of a system interact in order to achieve a desired outcome or goal. (Larry L. Barker and Deborah A. Gaut, Communication; 2001) 1.5 FEATURES OF COMMUNICATION On the basis of the above discussion, let us now discuss certain important features of the process of communication. 1. It is an exchange of ideas. Communication is the process through which an exchange of information takes place. It is the sharing of information, ideas, concepts and messages. 2. Two parties are involved in it. In communication, the exchange of information takes place between two or more persons. This implies that there are minimum two people involved in the communication process at any given time. The one who initiates the exchange is the sender of the message (speaker/writer) and the one who receives and interprets it is the receiver of the message (listener/reader). 3. It is a two-way process. Communication is a two-way process of exchanging ideas or information. One person alone cannot carry out communication. When you communicate, there has to be a receiver or an audience that would reciprocate. Then only your communication can be complete. Thus, communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal and non-verbal messages. It is considered effective only when it achieves the desired reaction or response from the receiver. The response may be positive or negative. In case of absence of any response, communication is incomplete. Thus, communication is effective only when a concise and clear message is delivered well, received successfully, understood fully, and responded to promptly. 1.6 OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION There is no human action that is done without any purpose. Even the simplest and most natural action like breathing has a purpose- to stay alive. Communication is also always carried out with some purpose. (Refer 1.3 Pre-requisites of Communication) Communication begins with two-fold objectives or purposes that occupy the senders mind: Immediate or Primary to convey or to share Objectives information of Communication Ultimate or Secondary to convince or to persuade people To inform and to persuade are the two basic purposes (goals) that are ever present in the mind of a communicator. Sometimes, he seeks only to inform, as in scientific writings; sometimes, his goal is to persuade the reader, as in journalistic writings; and oftentimes, he wants both to inform and to persuade the reader, as in sales letters, advertisements, etc. Communication is vital to business. The communication activities of an organization fall into three broad categories: 1. Intra-organisational Communication FORMAL Business 2. Inter-organisational Communication Communication 3. Personal INFORMAL Communication 1. Intra-Organisational Communication It is communication within an organization. It is done to implement business plans. It takes many forms like orders, instructions, reports, emails, etc. 2. Inter-Organisational Communication It is communication that a business organization does with people outside the organization i.e. with other companies, customers, clients, general public, etc. It takes the form of planned publicity to improve its image and public relations with the help of business messages, advertising, displays, etc. The success of a business depends on its ability to fulfill the customers needs. Besides providing services, it must communicate effectively with outside people and groups for its success. 3. Personal Communication It is communication without a specific business objective i.e. without an ulterior motive or purpose. Man is a social animal, therefore we have a compulsive need to communicate even when we have nothing substantial to convey. Such communication also occurs in the workplace. For example, personal conversations, gossip, Grapevine phenomenon, etc. If one is not allowed to engage in such casual communication, it may lead to frustration and other such psychological problems. (For a more detailed discussion on corporate communication, refer Chapter 7 Formal and Informal Networks of Communication.) The primary objective of communication is to convey or share information. Business organizations have to deal with a large and varied amount of information on a daily basis in order to conduct various business activities. Thus, proper flow of information helps them to make right decisions. Another equally important objective of communication is to persuade people to accept a point of view or to change their attitude and accept a new or modified attitude. Persuasion is achieved through logical arguments or an emotional appeal to accept the change. Advertisements are an apt example of the persuasive nature of communication. Essentially, all communication is a deliberate and intentional act of persuasion. A communicator wants the reader not only to understand the message but also to be influenced as intended by him. (For a detailed discussion, refer 10.6 Persuasive Communication, Chapter 10 Nature of Attitude and its Influence on Communication) Communication helps to convey information from experts to trainees in an organization for the purpose of educating or training them to handle new technology or to adapt to the changes in the work environment. Communication is an effective tool in the hands of the managers to motivate and to boost the morale of the employees. This enables the organization to achieve higher productivity. Through advice and counseling, the management can help the employees in dealing with their emotional problems as well as problems pertaining to maladjustment and also to give career guidance. By means of letters of appreciation, special mention in reports, minutes of meetings, etc., the management can appreciate the work of the employees. In case of strikes, lockouts, and dismissal of individual employees or disciplinary action against them, the management uses communication channels to issue warnings. Communication also helps in co-ordination of intra-organisational activities, inter-organisational transactions, business transactions, and commercial transactions by means of conferences, meetings, advertisements, requests, suggestions, reviews, and discussions. Without communication, coordinating the activities of different persons engaged in running a business is a remote possibility. The management and the subordinates come closer through communication. Communication promotes cooperation and good industrial relations as it conveys feelings, ideas, opinions, and viewpoints of one party to the other party. The policies and programs formulated by the organization to guide the workforce have to be conveyed to those who are responsible for the execution of work to achieve the organizational objectives. Only effective communication can translate the plans into actions. It aids teamwork by enabling people to work together. It helps perform basic management functions like instructing, coordinating, staffing, planning, etc. Thus, these are the few important objectives of communication in the context of business organizations. So far, we have discussed what comprises communication and the significance of communication in our personal, social as well professional life. We have also highlighted some of the fundamentals of communication. Let us now analyse the process of communication and see how it is accomplished. 1.7 PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION Process is a series of things done to achieve something. Communication also follows a process. Communication begins when the sender/encoder identifies the need to communicate some idea/concept/information. He then encodes/formulates it into a message using a medium which can be understood by the receiver/decoder of the message who in turn processes it in his mind and responds to it. When the decoder understands the message completely, fidelity of communication is said to be 100% and the communication process is said to be complete. (Refer David Berlos Model of Communication) Thus, communication is a two-way process. Fidelity of Communication Idea Idea Concept Encoder Medium Decoder Concept Message Message Information Information Fidelity of Communication David Berlos Model of Communication If necessary, the receiver may send a reply or may respond or react to the message. This response or reaction is also known as feedback. But sometimes, there may be no response at all from the receiver even if it is required. Absence of feedback can be attributed to either of the following reasons- a) the message does not reach the receiver or b) the receiver fails to understand the message. Such situations may arise due to the presence of some factor/s that can- a) obstruct the message from being transmitted or b) distort the meaning of the message. The factors that hamper the flow of communication are known as barriers to communication. (Refer Chapter 4 Resolving Barriers to Communication) Communication occurs in five phases and it consists of the following eight components which are inter-related: Idea Sender/Encoder (Speaker/Writer) Encoding Message Channel and Medium Receiver/Decoder (Reader/Listener) Decoding Feedback Let us now discuss in detail the various stages and elements involved in the communication process. PHASE I- IDEATING: 1) Idea Every message whether oral or written has its origin in an idea that germinates in the mind of the sender of the message. Every idea refers to some context. Context is a common frame of reference within which the sender and the receiver communicate with each other. Thus, the idea or information that the sender wants to convey to the receiver is the source of the message in the communication process. 2) Sender/Encoder The person who initiates the communication process is referred to as the encoder. The process of communication begins with the sender who identifies the need to communicate. He may want to inform or to persuade or to influence or to make the receiver take a particular course of action. The sender must have a clear picture in his mind about what he wants to communicate and should accordingly select symbols, words, images, etc. that would best convey his ideas to the receiver. He must identify his audience and formulate the message in such a way that the receiver understands fully what he intends to convey and interprets it within the same context. PHASE II- ENCODING: 3) Encoding Encoding takes place when the sender formulates his idea into a message to be transmitted to the receiver, using a series of symbols- verbal and/or non-verbal, written or oral. The sender should encode his message keeping in mind the purpose of communication and he should select words or symbols so as to make the receiver understand the communication correctly and to achieve the expected feedback. The sender as well as the receiver should attach the same meaning to the symbols or words, otherwise communication would fail. Thus, proper encoding is essential for successful communication. 4) Message That which is encoded, i.e. the idea/concept/information, is the message. Message is an idea transformed into words. It can be expressed in different ways depending on the subject-matter, purpose, audience, personal style and cultural background of the sender. It can be transmitted effectively only when it is well-formulated, clear, and complete in itself. PHASE III- TRANSMITTING: 5) Channel and Medium An appropriate medium chosen to send the message is known as channel. It is the vehicle which facilitates the sender to convey the message to the receiver. Channel is the system used to transmit a message, whereas medium is one of the forms or types used under that system. For example, oral communication is a channel and telephone conversation (a form of oral communication) is a medium. There are three broad channels of communication and there are several media under each- Channel Medium 1. Oral face-to-face conversation, telephone conversation, audio-tapes, voice mail, etc. 2. Written letters, memos, reports, manuals, notices, circulars, questionnaires, minutes, email, fax, etc. 3. Audio-visual cinema, television, video-tapes, video conferences, video chat, etc. Thus, there is a difference between medium and channel. The sender should decide the best possible channel and medium to transmit the message. The selection of an appropriate channel/medium would be influenced by the following factors- a) the nature of the message, b) the urgency of the message, c) the number of receivers, d) the cost factor, and e) the relationship between the sender and the receiver. PHASE IV- RECEIVING: 6) Receiver/Decoder The person who receives the encoded message is referred to as the decoder. He is the intended audience of the message. The receiver may be an individual or a group of individuals. As communication is a two-way process, the receiver is as important as the sender of the message. Communication will not be complete in the following situations- a) in the absence of the receiver, b) if the message does not reach the right/intended receiver, and c) if the receiver does not understand the message. A receiver may be a listener or a reader or a viewer of the message. He not only receives the message but also tries to understand, interpret, and perceive the total meaning of the message, as was intended by the sender, and gives necessary feedback. 7) Decoding It is a process by which the receiver interprets the message and translates it into meaningful information. The meaning of the message is the sum total of the meanings of the words (symbols) together with the tone and the attitude of the sender as reflected by his choice of w

Inherit The Wind Essay -- essays research papers

Inherit the Wind   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main theme of Inherit the Wind by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee is taking a stand. The play begins in Hillsboro, Tennessee when a man named Bertram Cates breaks the law by teaching the forbidden Darwin’s Theory. The most famous orators of the time, Matthew Harrison Brady and Henry Drummond came to this small religious town of Hillsboro. Brady is prosecuting against Cates and Drummond is defending him. After days of battle, the verdict is finally decided and Bertram Cates is found guilty.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many people take stands for different reasons. Some take stands to send a message out that needs to be sent. That is what happened in this play. A man named Matthew Harrison Brady did exactly that. A gray-haired man, he believes strongly in the Bible took the stand. Although his partner Tom Davenport strongly disagreed with Brady’s actions. Brady thought that this would benefit his trial. â€Å"Your Honor, this is preposterous!† (page 75) said Davenport as he tries to object to Drummond’s witness (Brady). The judge believed the actions of Drummond to be highly unorthodox and claimed to have never known a prosecuting attorney to be called as a witness. Brady agreed replying,...

Role of Women :: essays research papers

Different authors have different approaches to the same issue. In this paper I will contrast and compare how the authors Alexis De Tocqueville, Holly Dover, and Christina Hoff Sommers, tackle the myth of the role of women in society and what the role of women should be according to them. De Tocqueville   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  De Tocqueville was a French aristocrat who came to America to study the American penal system. Coming from a European society he was struck by the way Americans understood the equality of the sexes. He published his book Democracy in America in 1835, which is from where our excerpt came from.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  De Tocqueville seems very impressed with the fact that American women are capable of performing the same duties as men but do not choose to because they rather maintain their natural place in society. American women are just as capable as men in understanding politics and other important affairs, but choose not to occupy themselves with such matter, so they spend more time in preserving their natural beauty and their natural place in society without being forced to. He also seems pleased by the fact that the women take pride in â€Å"bending themselves to the yoke†. He seems to be very content with American men as well who, unlike European men, do not flatter their women constantly and boast themselves to be women’s slaves but instead, show the appreciation of their women through their actions. European men on the other hand are all talk. De Tocquville says in his closing argument that even though American women are extremely dependent on the men, he has never seen any women occupy a loftier position. He attributes America’s superiority to the superiority of her women. Another way of looking at the roles we assume in society is that they are â€Å"socially constructed†. Holly Devor brings this view to our attention in an essay. Being a professor of sociology at the University of Victoria in British Columbia, she is an expert in the field. She uses a more scientific approach, as compared to De Tocquville, to the argument about the role of men and women in society. She believes that we learn how to live our lives according to our gender at a very young age. According to research, by the age of five years old, children may be able to accurately recognize their own gender and the genders of the people around them; however, they will often do that on the basis of role information, such as hairstyle and clothing, rather than physical attributes such as genitals.

Improving Speaking Skills Essay

This article examines the different circumstances under which infant and adult learners develop speaking skills. We will see the facilities or difficulties in both cases in order to focus on the real possibilities of adults to develop a high level of speaking proficiency. We will see what the role of the teacher is in order to improve the learners’ skills, the features of oral communication that need to be improved and which strategies can be used to overcome the difficulties. Key words: speaking skills, adult learning, oral communication, teaching strategies. Resumen Este articulo analiza las diferentes circunstancias en las que ninos y adultos desarrollan las destrezas orales. Veremos las facilidades y dificultades en ambos casos para asi centrarnos en las posibilidades reales que tienen los adultos de alcanzar un alto nivel de competencia oral. Veremos tambien cual es el papel del profesor en este contexto, para mejorar las capacidades de los alumnos, y ver cuales son los elementos de la comunicacion oral que hay que mejorar y que estrategias se pueden aplicar para superar las dificultades. Palabras clave: destrezas orales, aprendizaje de adultos, comunicacion verbal, estrategias de ensenanza. If we think of the period in our lives when we learned to speak our first language, and the moment in which we started to make huge efforts to speak our second/foreign language we find significant differences. In the former case, we may have fond memories of what our parents told us; and in the latter, it suddenly becomes a frustrating experience that seems to bring imperfect results. For adults, learning to speak a new language is in many cases far from satisfactory simply because they feel they need to cope with many different aspects at one time, and that seems to be impossible in real conversations. I wonder if it is possible to acquire a high level of speaking proficiency in adults; I wonder if it is possible to make adult learners improve their speaking skills, and the most important thing for teachers: how? The first question we have to consider in order to reach a conclusion is whether learning at infancy is different from learning at adulthood; which are the circumstances that differentiate them and if those onditions inevitably lead to obvious and hopeless results. Only bearing in mind what we can expect of a particular type of learner, we can focus on how to improve their speaking skills. It is obvious that there are marked differences between children learners and adult learners and that they cannot acquire the second language under the same circumstances. Consequently, the results will be also different. Concerning children and the early age at which they learn to speak, we can say that they enjoy certain advantages that make them outstanding learners. They have surprising linguistic abilities due to optimal moment in which they find themselves for language learning, this is to say, at this moment their brain is characterized by a certain plasticity that allows some abilities to develop with ease during a period of time, after which it becomes really difficult for these abilities to be developed (Fleta, 2006: 53), or using 86 Improving Speaking Skills Betsabe Navarro Romero Encuentro, 18, pp. 86-90 Klein’s words ‘between the age of two and puberty the human brain shows the plasticity which allows a child to acquire his first language’ (Klein, 1986: 9). Therefore, children are special learners for their natural and innate abilities to acquire a language. According to Fleta, one of these special abilities is ‘filtering sophisticated information about language properties from birth’ (Fleta, 2006: 49), in other words, children have an enormous ability to integrate difficult information in an easy and unconscious way from the beginning of their development. They are able to acquire and integrate complex data without being aware of it, whereas other learners, at other ages, would find it arduous to achieve. Moreover, apart from this special gift children have for assimilating difficult information, we can mention some of their other qualities, such as their capacity for perceiving and imitating sounds. Some studies have showed that ‘young infants are especially sensitive to acoustic changes at the phonetic boundaries between categories’ (Kuhl, 2004: 832). Also, children are especially good at predicting syllable chunks: ‘infants are sensitive to the sequential probabilities between adjacent syllables’ (Kuhl, 2004: 834) which makes children with a surprising instinct as far as language knowledge is concerned . Finally, students also acquire the ability of ordering words within a sentence (grammar rules) unconsciously: ‘there is some evidence that young children can detect non-adjacencies such as those required to learn grammar’ (Kuhl, 2004: 836). All in all, we can say that children learn the language without being aware of it when they ‘are exposed to the right kind of auditory information’ (Kuhl, 2004: 836), this is, children learn the language through communication and interaction and thanks to that they acquire all the abilities they can potentially develop. On the other hand, concerning adults we observe how difficult is that they can acquire certain native sounds; their pronunciation will be, on many occasions, foreign-like which is due to their difficulty in distinguishing and producing some sounds after the so called ‘critical period’. In that respect, some authors claim that adult learners cannot acquire a phonological development (Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 69). However, other researchers defend the opposite. Wolfgang Klein, in his book Second Language Acquisition (1986) stated that ‘the apparent facility with which children learn a second language is often attributed to biological factors, but an alternative explanation might be that, unlike adults, children have no need to fear the loss of their social identity’ (Klein, 1986: 6). Authors such as Klein argue that phonological facilities of children are not bound to biological reasons, but to psychological ones. In that respect, adults feel attached to their native identities, to their original social identities, which is what prevent them from achieving perfection in L2 pronunciation. Klein confirmed that ‘suitably motivated adults are capable of mastering to perfection the pronunciation of the most exotic languages’ (Klein, 1986: 10). Therefore, we conclude that although the cases of adults speaking a second language without any accent are not very common, this does not mean that it is impossible to acquire a native-like pronunciation. Also, besides phonological issues, we can talk about the capacity of adults to acquire any other kind of linguistic faculties, more related to structural relations (UG). In that sense, there are authors that doubt the validity of Lenneberg’s Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) by assuring that even adults have access to the well known Universal Grammar. While Lenneberg claimed that only before puberty learners had UG available, authors such as S. W. Felix defended by evidence that adult L2 learners also benefit from the UG principles: ‘If child and adult learners use different modules for the purpose of language acquisition, then we would expect adult learners to be unable to attain grammatical knowledge that arises only through the mediation of UG. If, in contrast, adults do attain this type of knowledge, then, we have reason to believe that UG continues to be active even after puberty’ (Felix, 1988: 279). Therefore, we can conclude that adults are also able to master a proficient use of the second/foreign language, not only in grammatical issues but also in phonological ones, which makes us believe that we can improve adult learners’ speaking skills. 87 Improving Speaking Skills Betsabe Navarro Romero Encuentro, 18, pp. 86-90 Once we know that adults can be biologically and psychologically prepared to have a native-like proficiency in the second language, we should move on to the second language teaching context in order to achieve our aim of improving adult learners’ skills. In that respect, we should reflect on the teachers’ role in this situation and what they can do to be successful with their learners. Teachers therefore need to analyse the students’ needs, face their problems and find fruitful solutions that help them develop their speaking abilities. S. Pit Corder, in his chapter called ‘Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching’, in Introducing Applied Linguistics (1973) defended the important role of linguists who identify the problems of the learners and find solutions for them. Corder added that specialists’ role is to formulate the appropriate questions in order to define problems that need to be faced. Using his words, ‘the formulation of the questions, the identification of the problems and the specification of their nature presupposes linguistic theory. The nature of the problem is defined by the theory which is applied to it. The solution to a problem is only as good as the theory which has been used to solve it’ (Corder, 1973: 138). In this direction he said that in language teaching there are two appropriate questions teachers should make: what to teach and how to teach, ‘these are the problems of content and method, or, using an industrial analogy, the problem of product and process design respectively’ (Corder, 1973: 139). Therefore, if teachers wish to know how to improve speaking skills, what they need to ask themselves first is what they are going to teach, and how. On the one hand, let us consider the first question: what. If we need to improve speaking skills we need to know which skills or which features learners need to develop. In that respect, there are several authors that stated different goals or different dimensions that speakers needed to achieve. Goodwin, for instance, established several goals for a proper pronunciation. She called them ‘functional intelligibility, functional communicability, increased self-confidence, and speech-monitoring abilities’ (Goodwin, 2001: 118). She argued that learners should be able to speak an intelligible foreign language, that is to say, listeners need to understand the learner’s message without huge efforts; learners also need to be successful in a ‘specific communicative situation’ (Goodwin, 2001: 118); they need to ‘gain confidence in their ability to speak and be understood’ (Goodwin, 2001: 118); and finally, they need to monitor and control their own production by paying attention to their own speech. Goodwin specified those abilities that learners need to acquire through certain linguistic features that can be practiced: Intonation, rhythm, reduced speech, linking words, consonants and vowel sounds, word stress, etc. These are concrete speaking aspects in which learners should be trained in order to improve their speaking skills. Similarly, other authors such as Anne Lazaraton suggest that oral communication is based on four dimensions or competences: grammatical competence (phonology, vocabulary, word and sentence formation†¦); sociolinguistic competence (rules for interaction, social meanings); discourse competence (cohesion and how sentences are liked together); and finally, strategic competence (compensatory strategies to use in difficult situations), (Lazaraton, 2001: 104). According to Lazaraton learners should develop all these abilities to acquire a high oral level of the foreign language, but she adds that in recent years, with the influence of the communicative approach, more importance is given to fluency, trying to achieve a balance with the traditional accuracy. Moreover, apart from what pedagogically and theoretically should be taught, many researchers are presently analysing real problems that learners face: ‘fluent speech contains reduced forms, such as contractions, vowel reduction, and elision, where learners do not get sufficient practice’ (Lazaraton, 2001: 103); use of slang and idioms in speech since students tend to sound ‘bookish’ (Lazaraton, 2001: 103), stress, rhythm, intonation, lack of active vocabulary, lack of interaction pattern rules†¦ 88 Improving Speaking Skills Betsabe Navarro Romero Encuentro, 18, pp. 86-90 Once speaking goals have been determined, next step consists of questioning how they are going to be achieved. For designing a concrete methodology teachers need to adopt a theoretical perspective, they need to reflect on the linguistic approach that will be used in their teaching. Many authors, following the up-todate trend of the Communicative approach, defend the interactive role of speaking and promote its teaching from a communicative perspective stressing meaning and context. In Goodwin’s words: ‘In â€Å"Teaching Pronunciation† the goal of instruction is threefold: to enable our learners to understand and be understood, to build their confidence in entering communicative situations, and to enable them to monitor their speech’ (Goodwin, 2001: 131), also ‘pronunciation is never an end in itself but a means of negotiating meaning in discourse, embedded in specific sociocultural and interpersonal contexts’ (Goodwin,2001: 117). If we think of how this theoretical background will be applied in real teaching, we find that in traditional classes they focused speaking practice on the production of single and isolated sounds, whereas within the communicative approach, ‘the focus shifted to fluency rather than accuracy, encouraging an almost exclusive emphasis on suprasegmentals’ (Goodwin, 2001: 117). There is the key word, when communication is the main goal linguistic practice turns into longer structures, at the suprasegmental level; therefore, the training on individual sounds makes way for macro structures that affect interaction directly. The second part of how to teach, moves away from theory to approach real problems and their solutions. Several authors have stated that when learners face problems in speaking they need practical and concrete solutions to know how to behave and respond in order to overcome those difficulties. Mariani, in his article ‘Developing Strategic Competence: Towards Autonomy in Oral Interaction’, recalls L1 strategies that native speakers use when they encounter communication problems, and suggests teaching those strategies to L2 learners: ‘just think of how often, in L1 communication, we cannot find the words to say something and have to adjust our message, or to ask our interlocutor to help us, or to use synonyms or general words to make ourselves understood’ (Mariani, 1994: 1). Mariani classifies those strategies according to the speakers’ behaviour: learners can either avoid certain messages because they don’t feel confident with their speaking skills (‘reduction strategies’), or make the most out of their knowledge and modify their message bearing in mind their weaknesses and strengths (‘achievement strategies’: borrowing, foreignizing, translating†¦(Mariani, 1994: 3). The author praises the latter by saying that achievement strategies are a very interesting way of developing learners’ language domain. Speakers who opt for this option make huge efforts to transmit a message by playing with the language to the extreme, which only brings beneficial consequences. In the second or foreign language classroom context, teachers should train learners to use and practice the different strategies that can help them face difficult situations. The only way of training students in this direction is by means of a bank of activities in which they become aware of the different possibilities that they can put into practice. Authors such as Goodwin or Lazaraton offer a varied list of exercises to be used in class: poems, rhymes, dialogues, monologues, role plays, debates, interviews, simulations, drama scenes, discussions, conversations†¦ Therefore, coming back to the initial question proposed above, I think it is absolutely feasible to teach adults strategies to improve their speaking skills. Of course, that objective depends on many different factors that will affect the degree of acquisition, let us think of age, motivation, or even the context in which the language is learned: ESL versus EFL. In that respect, learners in a second language context will have numberless occasions to practice the language and that will undoubtedly influence their skills development. With reference to the foreign language context, authors such as Lazaraton admitted the difficulties learners 89 Improving Speaking Skills Betsabe Navarro Romero Encuentro, 18, pp. 86-90 ormally face: ‘homogeneous EFL classes, where all students speak the same first language and English is not used outside the classroom, present certain additional challenges for the teacher’ (Lazaraton, 2001: 110). As she said, teachers have considerable limitations in EFL classes such as lack of opportunities to use the language, lack of motivation in the learners, the number of students in the class, curriculum re strictions†¦(Lazaraton, 2001: 110), but there are solutions and strategies, as the ones previously mentioned, that should be put into practice. Mariani, in his article mentioned above, also makes a reflection on whether communication strategies should be teachable or not. He states the pros and cons by saying that training students on specific strategies can provide them with certain limitations and consequently hamper fluent communication: ‘we can hardly force them into a straightjacket of pre-selected strategies. Most of us would agree that we should encourage spontaneity, creativity and originality in language use’ (Mariani, 1994: 7). However, on the other hand, he argues that if learners become aware of the different strategies they can flexibly use, they will finally integrate them either consciously or unconsciously, which will stretch their possibilities for communication. To sum up, as teachers can, and should, improve learners’ speaking skills and communication strategies, the only thing they need to do is to plan their teaching around two main questions: what they want to teach, which specific speaking features they want to develop in their learners; and how they want to do it.